Briefly outline the causes and effects of famine in developing Essay - 2

Briefly outline the causes and effects of famine in developing countries - Essay Example Starvation proceeds then because people are continuously subsisting without sufficient food supply and this condition worsens when famine is under sway; similarly, mortality rate is high due to unprecedented incidences of starvation. However, famine is not only attributable to an extreme and prolonged shortage of food but it also underlines economic, political and social trends that can transpire when food supplies are adequate to avert its emergence. Nevertheless, the causes of famine are insignificant when put adjacent to the effects of it such as anguish, emaciation and fatalities from a combination of starvation and contagious disease. Unfortunately, famine normally inflicts the vulnerable portion of a population, the children and the elderly (Scrimshaw, 1987, 1). Historically, the great starvation experienced by Ireland in the nineteenth century and the famine of Bengal in the 1940s have been blamed more on British political resolutions to export domestically produced grain without taking into consideration the possible production shortfalls that will occur. Even when production deficit is the primary cause of inadequate supply, the ecological and political grounds for production predicaments fluctuate extensively. They vary from natural calamities such as drought, flood, or pestilence to political debacles such as civil strife, to inappropriate economic policies such as price management, which largely contribute to the decline of the production of indispensable foods. Nevertheless, in all the sources of famine or food shortage, many within the affected region are starving; yet, in every food-short area, there are still a few numbers of people who benefit from sufficient access to food. Likewise, even though many are food protected in region s of plenty food availability, there are still incidences of chronic starvation (Derose et al 1998, p. 53). People from different organizations,

Applied Experience Paper Term Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Applied Experience - Term Paper Example They also discover various aspects of people feeling certain response on a particular issue (Brittany, 2010). The learning from different aspects of psychology has had a deep impact on my life. Due to my education in this field, I have developed a better understanding of people and scenarios at every stage of life. To explore the different dimensions of the psychology and their application in the real life, I have participated in group psychotherapy of the adolescents, who had been displaying aggressive attitude in their everyday life. Since group therapy is about making people understand that they are not the only one who is suffering from the same circumstances, there are other people as well who are also going through same circumstances (DRB Alternatives. Inc, 2010). Group therapy is successful because the members of the groups share personal issues that they are facing (Weinberg, 2000). In a group therapy, people interact with individuals who are in either a state of emotion, or ahead, or those people who have recovered from their problem. Through this, the members of the group become a source of support and strength for each other. Moreover, because of their common experience, the participants understand each other’s situation, and therefore, they can develop a better relationship with each other. Psychotherapy In the setting that I experienced, there were altogether six adolescents and the therapist. The issue that they had on hand to deal with was increased aggression in their personalities. All these children had complained that against their own will, with the passage of time, they were developing an aggressive personality. Once the participants started discussing their family backgrounds, their life experiences and the relationship of their parents with each other, I discovered that most of the participants had previously experienced aggression in their lives to some extent. If they had not experienced it, then they had a broken family and/or w ere brought up by a single parent. While I was sitting in the setting and was listening to the experiences of the adolescents, the concept that was running in my mind was Bandura’s Experiments (Myers, 2008). In these experiments, the researcher has proved that children have exceptionally high level of observation starting from their birth. Therefore, their learning through observation is very strong. Thus, they imitate everything they see, if not immediately then possibly at some other time, but they do imitate the observed behaviour. From the explanation of the adolescents during the therapy, it was evident that out of six, four of them had someone in the family that was very aggressive, because of which they also developed a habit that keeps getting stronger by the day. The interesting part that I found about these participants is that almost every child has at least one of the parents who are aggressive in front of the children. At this point, the other theory that I have observed in my daily life is that children usually idealize their parents and tend to copy them in most of the situations where they can. They tend to do whatever their parents do in front of them, either in person or in similar settings. However, the rest of the two adolescents who were complaining about the aggression had not witnessed aggressive attitude by their parents. They were the brought up

Value Objectivity Essay Example for Free

Value Objectivity Essay The philosophies and beliefs of a person are shaped from the day we are born all through maturity amongst our individual, ethnic, and shared encounters. Establishing what is factual from erroneous differs on our individual routine and what we allow to let sway our viewpoints and actions. Ethical decision making while essential, can sometimes be extremely difficult and challenging. This is predominantly spot-on when working with clientele that have unlike beliefs and views. For example: If one leg of a four-legged stool is missing, the stool will not stand correctly. If one leg is shorter than the others, the stool may be awkward to use. The correlation of a four-legged stool can be utilized to help better comprehend the prominence and interdependence of individual, organizational and cultural ethics and how all of these things tend to influence one another. The ethical aspects of counseling are based on a system of rules which have been constructed for a precise group of people or field of work, and were developed for the purpose of setting the standards of conduct and behavior that are to be used by professionals. Ethical connotations hardly ever have an easy answer, and often counselors must seek help from more experienced professionals, but this is not a guarantee that the anticipated result will be accomplished. The first guideline in the ACA’s (2005) Code of Ethics reads â€Å"the primary responsibility of counselors is to respect the dignity and promote the welfare of clients† (Kaplan, 2014). â€Å"Competence is required of practitioners if they are to protect and serve their clients. Although the intents are to not harm clients, sometimes incompetence is a contributing factor in causing harm for practitioners† (Corey, et al, 2014). When therapists are conscious of his/her own individual morals, principals, and unsettled struggles they can successfully discuss their clientele without dropping emphasis on the requirements of the customer, but sometimes this isn’t always the case. â€Å"Standard 2.01(a) requires psychologists to â€Å"provide services, teach, a nd  conduct research with populations and in areas only within the boundaries of their competence, based on their education, training, supervised experience, consultation, study, or professional experience† (Shiles, 2009). Counselors should remain inside their span of training, be mindful of the restrictions of his/her licensed expertise, be present at essential education programs and maintain their learning, use his/her own common sense, and be able to identify when referrals should be made. It should be the disposition of counselors to always value the mixture of their clientele, novices, and study partakers. The ACA Code of Ethics (2005) section A.4.b. Personal Values states, â€Å"Counselors are aware of their own values, attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors and avoid imposing values that are inconsistent with counseling goals† (Kaplan, 2014). â€Å"Standard C.5., states, â€Å"Counselors do not condone or engage in discrimination based on age, culture, disability, ethnicity, race, religion/spirituality, gender, gender identity, sexual orientation, marital status/partnership, language preference, socioeconomic status, or any basis prescribed by law† (Kaplan, 2014). Personal standards, t he main beliefs that describe an individual, develop over time. They are shaped by a mixture of influences as well as ones from family and friends, along with learning and religious establishments. â€Å"When it becomes clear that a client’s counseling needs exceed our competence, we must either develop the competence necessary to effectively treat the client or refer this client to another competent professional† (Corey, et al, 2014). There are going to be many instances when treating clients that the situation is going to be uncomfortable and it may be easier to just refer the clients to someone else. â€Å"The ACA Code of Ethics (ACA, 2005) authorizes counselors to conclude a treatment liaison under these three circumstances: â€Å"When it becomes reasonably apparent that the client no longer needs assistance, is not likely to benefit, or is being harmed by continued counseling† (Kaplan, 2014). Although a counselor may be competent within a certain area of expertise, they still may need to refer a client from time to time to maintain working within the boundaries of the professional role and successfully delivering the services that client’s may need. â€Å"The counselor need not accept or approve of the client’s values. Disagreement with or nonacceptance of the client’s values does not mean that the client is not accepted as a person† (Kaplan, 2014). Instances that referral may be  necessary are as such: the patron has additional needs; the therapist lacks special proficiencies; the client needs a expert; the therapist is acquainted with the client beyond a professional basis; no growth is being formulated; the client is contributing in disorderly activities that could be damaging those around them; the therapist and client aren’t forming a beneficial connection due to personality differences; and the counselor is has taken the client outside of their comfort zone. Before making a referral it’s important to explore what is the difficulty within the situation; what barriers are preventing the professional from working with the client. Purely differing with a client or not having a distinct fondness for the client is not ethical grounds to make a referral. When referral is not an option for a counselor the counselor must take additional steps to ensure that they are not only professionally competent but to also develop skills by working with colleagues that have more experience, especially when seeking new areas within the practice. These skills can be obtained by attending conferences, networking opportunities, reading books and journal articles, etc. The primary goal is for professional counselors to embrace supporting the individual’s worth, self-esteem, potential, and individuality. â€Å"In order to determine our level of competence, we must engage in an ongoing process of self-assessment and self-reflection† (Watson, et al, 2006). In conclusion, values and ethical standards are sometimes challenging to describe although people understands and practices the theory. A therapist’s ethical responsibilities to clientele start during the initial interaction or appointment, not during the beginning meeting; the point that counselors have moral accountabilities to those individuals that request help obligates a specialist to withhold the utmost respect and dignity in order to promote the welfare of the client. There are always going to be differences of opinions and values but the ultimate concern is the welfare of the client. References Corey G., Corey, M. S., Corey, C., Callanan, P. (2014). Issues and ethics in the helping professions (9th ed.). Independence, KY: Brooks/Cole Cengage Learning. ISBN-13: 9781285464671. Kaplan, D.M. (2014). Ethical Implications of a Critical Legal Case for the Counseling Profession: Ward v. Wilbanks. Journal of Counseling and Development, 92(2), 142-146. Shiles, M. (2009). Discriminatory Referrals: Uncovering a Potential Ethical Dilemma Facing Practitioners. Ethics Behavior, 19(2), 142-155. doi:10.1080/10508420902772777 Watson, Z.P., Herlihy, B.R., Pierce, L.A. (2006). Forging the Link Between Multicultural Competence and Ethical Counseling Practice: A Historical Perspective. Counseling Values, 50(2), 99-107.

Learning strategies and styles

Learning strategies and styles Chapter Two Literature Review 2.1 Learning Strategies Learning strategies are steps taken by students to enhance their own learning. Strategies are especially important for language learning because they are tools for active, self-directed involvement, which is essential for developing communicative competence. Appropriate language learning strategies result in improved proficiency and greater self-confidence. Throughout history, the best language students have used strategies ranging from naturalistic language practice techniques to analytic, rule-based strategies. Learning strategy workshops are drawing big crowds at language teachers conventions. Researchers are identifying, classifying, and evaluating language learning strategies, and these efforts are resulting in a steady stream of articles on the topic. 2.1.1 Definition of Learning Strategies According to Chamot (1987), learning strategies are techniques, approaches, or deliberate actions that students take in order to facilitate the learning and recall of both linguistics and content area information. Oxford and Nams (1998) study indicates that learning strategies is a technical phrase that means any specific conscious action or behavior student takes to improve his or her own learning. Oxford (1990) considers that any specific action taken by the learner to make learning easier, faster, more enjoyable, more self-directed, more effective, and more transferable to new situations is a language learning strategy (LLS). Strategies are the conscious steps of behavior used by language learners to enhance the acquisition, storage, retention, recall and one of new information (Oxford Ehrman, 1990). The concept of learning strategy is still a fuzzy one and not easy to have a final definition, though it has been over thirty years since researchers began the study of learning strategies. A summary of definitions of language learning strategies taken from the recent literature (Ellis, 1999:531) may help us have an overview of it. Chapter Two Literature Review 7 Table 2.1 Definitions of Learning Strategies Source Definitions Stern (1983)In our view strategy is best reserved for general tendencies or overall characteristics of the approach employed by the language learner, leaving techniques as the term to refer to particular forms of observable learning behavior. Weinstein and Learning strategies are the behaviors and thought that a learner Mayer (1986)engages in during learning that are intended to influence the learners encoding process. Rubin (1987)Learning strategies are strategies which contribute to the development of the language system which the learner constructs and affect learning directly. OMalley and the special thoughts or behaviors that individuals use to help them Chamot (1990)comprehend, learn, or retain new information Oxford (1990) Foreign or second language (L2) learning strategies are specific actions, behaviors, steps or techniques students use-often consciously-to improve their progress in apprehending, internalizing, and using the L2. Cohen (1998) Second language learner strategies constitute those processes which are consciously selected by learners and which may result in actions taken to enhance the learning or use of a second or a foreign language, through the storage, retention, recall, and application of information about that language. They encompass both language learning and language use strategies. Wen Qiufang Learning strategies are actions or measures which the students take in order to (2000) study more efficiently. This definition emphasizes two points: the goal of using learning strategies is the learners actions, rather than his/her thought. The action can be either exterior or interior. According to Ellis (1999), several problems arise form these varied definitions of this linguistic term. The first problem concerns whether language learning strategies are to be perceived of as behavioral (and therefore observable) or as mental, or as both. Oxford (1990) considers them as essentially behavioral, while Weinstein and Mayer (1986) thinks of them as both behavioral and mental. The second problem is the precise nature of the behaviors that are to count as learning strategies. Stern (1983) distinguishes strategies as general and more or less deliberate approach to learning, for example, an active task approach and techniques as observable forms of language learning behavior evident in particular areas in language learning, such 8 as grammar and vocabulary. Other researchers, however, have used the term strategy to refer to the kind of behaviors that Stern calls techniques. The third problem is whether learning strategies are to be seen as conscious and intentional or as subconscious. Chamot (1987) refers to them as deliberate actions. Seliger (1984) defines strategies as basic abstract categories of processing by which information perceived in the outside world is organized and categorized into cognitive structures as part of a conceptual network. However, some researchers consider that what starts out as a conscious tactic may involve into a subconscious strategy. The fourth one is about whether learning strategies are seen as having a direct or indirect effect on interlanguage development. Rubin (1987) asserts that the effect is a direct one. But other researchers, such as Stinger, consider it to be more indirect strategy use that provides learners with data, upon which the deep subconscious processes can work. Finally, there are differences in opinions about what motivates of the use of learning strategies. All the definitions above recognize that they are used in an effort to learn the L2, but Oxford (1989) also suggests that their use can have an affective purpose (i.e. to increase enjoyment). Although the definition is not always uniform, there are some basic characteristics in the generally accepted view of language learning strategy. Oxford (1990:9) summarizes her view of language learning strategies by listing twelve key features. She states that language learning strategies: contribute to the main goal, communicative competence. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ allow learners to become more self-directed. the role of teachers. are problem-oriented. are specific actions taken by the learner. involve many aspects of the learner, not just the cognitive. support learning both directly and indirectly. are not always observable. ari often conscious. can be taught. are flexible. Chapter Two Literature Review 9 are influenced by a variety of factors. After identifying the above elements involved in defining language learning strategies. and in order to avoid any confusion caused by different definitions and owing to the research instrument of SILL in this study, Oxfords definition (1990:8) of learning strategies is adopted throughout the this paper, in which learning strategies are seen as specific actions, behaviors, steps or techniques students often consciously use to improve their progress in apprehending, internalizing, and using, since this definition fully conveys the excitement or richness of learning strategies. 2.1.2 Classification of Learning Strategies Classification of language learning strategies has primarily followed the theory of cognition (Macaro, 2001). Cognition refers to how the brain works for information processing and retrieval. Strategies are used to retrieve and store new information in the brain till this information becomes automatic and such strategies are classified into a system by researchers and educators. Classification of strategies has many advantages. Learning strategies have been classified by many scholars (Wenden and Rubin, 1987; OMalley et. al, 1985; Oxford, 1990; Stem, 1992; Ellis, 1994, etc.). Strategy subsets enable researchers to describe the correspondence between mental processes and strategic processes (OMalley and Chamot, 1990). Strategy inventories may also serve as a valuable reference guide for educational instructors in the process of promoting autonomy in the language learner. Oxfords (1990) Strategy Inventory for Language Learning (SILL) is one such classification system linking groups thr ough a series of self-report assessments and questionnaires. Oxford divides strategies into two major classes: direct and indirect. Direct strategies refer to subconscious tasks, which are inherently learnt while indirect strategies refer to conscious strategies. These two classes are then subdivided into six sub-groups of memory, cognitive, compensation, social, affective and metacognitive. These subsets are interwoven with each other, creating an occasional overlap in the strategy groups. According to Oxford (1990), direct and indirect strategies and these six strategy categories function as a mutual support network within which various types of strategies enhance second language learning. Oxfords inventory is designed in a way to suit not only students learning English as a second/foreign language (ESL/EFL) in America but also students of any country. The inventory has already been translated into many languages and used as an effective tool for measuring strategy preferences and 10 developmental stages in strategy usage (Oxford and Burry-Stock, 1995). The inventory also has a well-understood underlying struct ure for strategy categorization and employs a wide range of strategies, all items of which are checked and rechecked for validity and reliability. However, the SILL categorization system is not without its limitations. SILL has been mainly based on research conducted on either groups of mixed nationalities learning English as a second/foreign language or native speakers of English learning a foreign language in the United States. As a result, Wharton (2000) refers to the dangers of ethnocentric bias and applicability regarding the definition of the good language learning strategies as defined by educators and researchers from the United States alone. Some studies have demonstrated that the most frequently used strategies in a foreign language context in Asia vary considerably from those in the second language context in the United States (Takeuchi et al., 1999; Takeuchi and Wakamoto, 2001). Takeuchi (2003:391) recognizes the importance of distinguishing between common strategies and context-specific (or environmental-unique) ones as promoting the survival of learners in the environment. OMalley and Chamot (1990:99), on the other hand, have differentiated strategies into three categories: cognitive, metacognitive and social/affective. Cognitive strategies are specified as learning steps that learners take to transform new material, for instance, inferring contextual guessing and relating new information to other concepts from memory. Metacognitive strategies involve consciously directing ones own efforts into the learning task. Social/affective strategies involve interaction with another person or taking control of ones own feelings on language learning. Wenden and Rubin (1987) again classifies learning strategies into two categories: cognitive (steps used by learners to process linguistic and socio-linguistic contents) and self-management (planning, monitoring and evaluating), on the basis of their learning functions. Macaro (2001) conceptualizes all language learning strategies as standing in a continuum without a clear line dividing the strategy types into particular areas. Cognitive strategies lie at one end with their inherent, subconscious, automatic tasks and metacognitive/social/affective at the other end with their conscious, evaluative strategies. Much of this classification research has been conducted in English as second/foreign language (ESLJEFL) settings. Regardless of how they are classified, the exact number of strategies available and how these strategies should be classified still remain open for discussion. A comparative analysis of various kinds of strategy classifications reported so Chapter Two Literature Review 11 far supported the view that OMalley and Chamots (1990) classification of strategies into cognitive, metacognitive and socio/affective strategies as well as Oxfords six-subset strategy taxonomy are more consistent with use of learners strategies than the direct and indirect dimensions (Hsiao and Oxford, 2002). Purdie and Oliver (1999) discuss the potential dangers of applying results of strategy studies with adults and adolescents to child second language learners. Apart from the psychological and sociological differences that exist between adults and children (Purdie and Oliver, 1999), the approach to se cond language acquisition among child learners has been associated more with first language acquisition (Larsen-Freeman, 1991). Among them, Oxfords classification (1990) is the most extensive and detailed one so far. Oxfords classification system is developed from Rubins and overlap with OMalleys to a great extent. And in this case study, one of the research questionnaires adopted is Oxfords Strategy Inventory for Language Learning (SILL). Therefore, the framework of Oxfords classification of learning strategy (in Table 2.2) will be conducted in the study. Table 2.2 Oxfords Classification of Learning Strategies Creating metal linkages Applying images and sounds Memory Strategies Reviewing well Employing action Direct Strategies Practicing Cognitive Strategies Receiving and sending messages Creating structure for input and output Guessing intelligently Compensation Strategies Overcoming limitations in speaking and writing Centering your learning Metacognitive Strategies Arranging and planning your learning Evaluating your learning Lowering your anxiety Indirect Strategies Affective Strategies Encouraging yourself Taking your emotional temperature Asking question Social Strategies Cooperating with others Empathizing with others (Source: Oxford, 1990:17) 12 dElr#7b~}i~ 2.1.3 Researches on Learning Strategies Learning strategies have been examined by researchers through interviews, questionnaires, diaries, observations and think-aloud protocols. The researches are mainly found in the following three areas: (1) classification of language learning strategies, (e.g. Oxford, 1990; OMalley and Chamot, 1990; Wenden and Rubin, 1987); (2) variables affecting language learning strategy, (e.g. Nyikos and Oxford, 1993; Oxford and Nyikos, 1989; Oxford, Nyikos, and Ehrman, 1988; Wharton, 2000; Young and Oxford, 1997); and (3) the effect of strategy training on second language learning, (e.g. Kitajima, 1997; Oxford, 1990). All these studies provide insights into understanding the learning process by learners of a second language and are crucial in underpinning a framework for second language acquisition. The first area of research identifies strategies used by learners and classifies them according to a system or taxonomy. The second examines potential variables related to language learning strategies such as age, motivation, gender and learning styles. Finally, the third area research explores the effect of explicit instruction in strategies to produce better performance. Research on language learning strategies has been classified into three general categories: studies to define and classify strategies, studies to describe strategies in greater detail and the types of tasks with which the strategies are effective, and studies to validate the influence of strategic processing or learning. OMalley and Chamot as well as Ellis (1994) note that most of the researches on language learning strategies haves been cross-sectional and correlational in nature. Early research into language learning strategies was concerned with attempting to establish what good language learning strategies might be. While no explicit claims were made about links between strategies and success, the title of these early articles implied a relationship: What the Great Language Learner can Teach Us (Rubin, 1975), and What Can We Learn From the Good Languages Learner? (Stern,1975). Researchers were hoping to identify strategies used by successful learners with the idea that they might be transferred to less successful learners. Notable studies carried out since these early two include Naiman, Frohlich, Stern, and Todesccos (1978) study, Rubins (1981) study and the work done by OMalley, Chamot, Stewner-Manzanares, Kupper, and Russo (1985). Much of the work on language learner strategies has been based on the assumption Chapter Two Literature Review 13 that there are good learning strategies (Rubin, 1975), but some studies (Naerrsson, 1985; Gillette, 1987) find no difference between high and low-proficiency groups on specific strategies. Consequently, the total number or variety of strategies employed and the frequency with which any given strategy is used are not necessarily indicators of how successful learners will be on a language task (Cohen, 1998). In view of these mixed results more studies are still made necessary. More recently, there have been studies on the benefits of strategy training. The goal of strategy training is to teach students how, when and why strategies can be used to facilitate their efforts at learning and using a foreign language. Strategy training is intended to help students explore ways that they can learn the target language more effectively, as well as to encourage students to self-evaluate and self-direct their learning. The first step in this process is to help learners recognize strategies which they have already used, and then to develop a wide range of strategies, so that they can select appropriate and effective strategies within the context of particular language tasks. A further goal of strategy training is to promote learner autonomy and learner self-direction by allowing students to choose their won strategies and to do so spontaneously, without continued prompting from the language teacher. Learners should be able to monitor and evaluate the relative effective ness of their strategy use, and more fully develop their problem-solving skills. Strategy training can thus be used to help learners achieve learner autonomy as well as linguistic autonomy. There are mixed reactions to the language strategies training movement in the literature, mainly because there have been few empirical studies to demonstrate that such training has irrefutable benefits. So far in the researches of learning strategies, a number of models for teaching learning strategies in both first and second language contexts have been developed. These international models share many features. All agree on the importance of developing student metacognitive understanding of the value of learning strategies and suggest that this is facilitated through teacher demonstration and modeling. All emphasize the importance of providing multiple practice opportunities with the strategies so that students can use them autonomously. All suggest that student should evaluate how well a strategy has worked, choose strategies for a task, and actively transfer strategies to new tasks. Anyhow, the previous researches all focused on the successful language learners or 14 d~7 r#7 f.(s ~C the common subjects. So far few studies have been carried out for the low achievers in language learning. Thus, the research on low language achievers is quite a new area in the studies of learning strategies and learning styles. 2.2 Learning Styles Learning style refers to the preferred ways which individuals use to solve problems confronted in their learning. The learners learning styles are often not perceived or used consciously. Learning style plays an important role for everyone to learn, to obtain information, to communicate with others. Knowing their own learning styles will help students to improve their language learning proficiency. 2.2.1 Definition of Learning Style The term learning style originates from psychology. It broadly refers to the way in which a learner tries to learn something, based on individual characteristics, used unconsciously and not perceived. Everyone has a learning style, but each persons is as unique as a signature. Each signature appears to be influenced by both nature and nurture. And Keefe (1979: 4) defines learning style as characteristic cognitive, affective, and physiological behaviors that serve as relatively stable indicators of how learners perceive, interact with and respond to the learning environment; Learning style is a consistent way of functioning that reflects underlying causes of behavior. This definition is most comprehensive and acceptable. In 1987, Willing defines learning style as an inherent, pervasive set of characteristics related with how learners prefer to learn or to deal with new information. Reid (1995, 69) defines learning style as an individuals natural, habitual, and preferred way(s) of absorbing, processing, and retaining new information and skills, and a pervasive quality in the learning strategy or the learning behavior of an individual. Oxford Ehrnan (1991) define the term learning style as preferred or habitual patterns of mental functioning and dealing with new information. And Dum and Dunn (1993: 7) define learning styles as a biological and developmental set of personal characteristics that make the identical instruction effective for some students and infective for others. To make it simple, language learning styles are the styles used in language learning, are the general Chapter Two Literature Review 15 approaches which students are predominantly disposed to use in order to learn a new language (Ehrman and Oxford, 1995:69), Oxford believes that language learning styles are likely to be a direct refection of the individuals overall learning style that is normally applies in most learning or working situations. And in 1984, Reid generates six kinds of learning styles. At the same time, she provided the Perceptual Learning Style Preference Survey to test the characteristics of learning styles of learners. And in psychological researches, the personality types influence individuals learning preference a lot. Thus, to some extent, the personality types of individuals can be taken as ones learning styles. Myers Briggs Type Theory was developed to provide practical application of the theory of psychology types originated by Carl Jung in 1923. It aims to identify individuals preferences, their most comfortable ways of behaving, including learning. And now it is used broadly in many areas to identify ones styles in learning, working, etc. Therefore, in the light of the overview of the definitions of learning styles, we can assume that learning styles are the preference of individuals with respect to how they learn based on ones own personality types. 2.2.2 Classification of Learning Style Many researchers have tried different ways to investigate learning styles. Among them, some have used survey to collect data on learners stated learning preferences. In 1984, Reid generated six kinds of learning styles and provided the Perceptual Learning Style Preference Survey. Reids six learning styles are as follows: Visual learning (e.g. reading and studying charts, learning from seeing words in books, and participating class discussion) Auditory learning (e.g. listening to lectures or audio tapes, reading aloud and participating class discussions) Kinesthetic learning (e.g. involving physical responses, role-playing in the classroom, actively participating in activities) Tactile learning (e.g. hands-on learning as in building models; writing notes or instructions) Group learning (e.g. learning with others) Individual learning (e.g. learning alone) 16 ff7r#lj:*bflftii~` Later Willing (1987) did another survey to investigate the learning styles of 517 adult ESL learners in Australia. According to the collected data, he identified two major dimensions of learning style. One was cognitive and corresponded closely to that of field independence/dependence. The other was more affective in nature. Based on these two dimensions, Willing describes four general learning styles (Table 2.3). Table 2.3 Willings Classification of Learning Styles General learning style Main characteristics Concrete learning style Direct means of processing information people-oriented; spontaneous; imaginative; Non-routinized learning Analytical learning style Focuses on specific problems and proceeds by means of hypothetical-deductive reasoning; prefers logical, didactic presentation Communicative learning style Fairly independent; highly adaptable and flexible; enjoying taking decisions Authority-orientated learning style Depends on other people; needs teachers directions and explanations; dislikes discovery learning (Source: Willing, 1987:67) Then, a more important classification is given by Oxford. Oxford identifies five learning styles in her Style Analysis Survey (SAS) in 1993. She makes the point that each style preference offers significant benefits for learning and that the important thing is for learners to identify the style preferences for that work and to apply them whenever possible. She notes that learners comfortable zone is their favorite style. The following is a description of the style contrast that appears on the SAS. The use of physical senses for study and work: visual vs. auditory vs. hands-on Dealing with other people extroversion vs. introversion Handling passable: inquisitive- random vs. concrete-sequential Approaching tasks: closure-oriented vs. open Dealing with ideas: global vs. analytic In addition to these prominent classifications, there are still some other classifications given by different scholars. Nelson (1973) distinguishes referential and expressive learners. And Peter (1977) identifies that some learners are analytic (i.e. word-learners processing information through a sequence of stages of acquisition) and some are gestalt Chapter Two Literature Review 17 (i.e. sentence-learners who begin with whole sentences which are used to perform function that are important to them). And Reid (1998) goes overview of the classification of learning styles (Table 2.4). It is a full-scale of the main classifications of learning styles of the previous researches. In L2 learning, learners clearly differ enormously in their preferred approach. But it is hard to say which style is the best. Among them, the classification of learning styles by Myers-Brigs Type Indicator will be conducted as the basic classification of learning styles in the following case study. Table 2.4 Reid's Overview on the Classification of Learning Styles Right-and Left brained Learning Styles Right-Brained Learns more effectively through visual analytic, reflective, self-retaining learning Left-Brained Learns more effectively throught auditory, global, impulsive, interactive learning The Seven Multiple Intelligence Verbal/Linguistic Ability with and sensitivity to oral and written words Musical Sensitivity to rhythm, pitch, and melody Logical/Mathematical Ability to use numbers effectively and to reason well Spatial/Visual Sensitivity to form, space, colour, line, and shape Bodily/Kinaesthetic Ability to use the body to express ideas and feelings Interpersonal Ability to understand another person's moods and intensions Intrapersonal Ability to understand oneself one's own strengths and weaknesses Perceptual Learning Styles Visual Learns more effectively through the eyes(seeing) Auditory Learns more effectively through the ear (hearing) Tactile Learns more effectively through touch (hands-on) Kinesthetic Learns more effectively through complete body experience Group Learns more effectively through working with others Individual Learns more effectively through working alone Field Independent and Field Dependent (Sensitive) Learning Styles Field Independent Learns more effectively sequentially, analyzing facts Field Dependent Learns more effectively in context (holistically) and is sensitive to human relationship>. Analytical and Global Learning Styles Analytical Learns more effectively individually, sequentially, linearly Global Learns more effectively through concrete experience and through interaction with other people Reflective and Impulsive Learning Style Reflective Learns more effectively when given time to consider options Impulsive Learns more effectively when able to respond immediately 18is#7~f4ii~~C Kolb Experiential. Learning Model Converger Learns more effectively when able to perceive abstractly and to process actively Diverger Learns more effectively when able to perceive concretely and to process reflectively Assimilator Learns more effectively when able to perceive abstractly and to process reflectively Accommodator Learns more effectively when able to perceive concretely and to process actively Myers-Briefs Type Indicator (MBTI) Extroverted Learns more effectively through concrete experience, contacts with and relationships with others Introverted Learns more effectively in individual, independent learning situations Sensing Learns more effectively from reports of observable facts Intuition Learns more effectively from meaningful experiences Thinking Learns more effectively from impersonal and logical circumstances Feeling Learns more effectively from personalized circumstances Judging Learns more effectively by reflection, deduction, analysis, and process that involve Perceiving closure Learns more effectively through negotiation, feeling and inductive processes tha postpone closure 2.2.3 Researches on Learning Styles There are lots of variable that can affect each learning style. It might be difficult to analyze the overall learning profile of a learner. Therefore, the researchers in this field have mainly focused on learning styles influence on language development, factors affecting learning styles, and how are learning styles related to language learning strategies. The study of learning styles influence on language development and proficiency is perhaps one of the widely conducted studies. Eliot (1995) in studying teaching pronunciation argues that field-independence is found to be a significant predictor of pronunciation accuracy. The potential influence of learning styles is also found out in the researchers made by Oxford et al (1992), and Ehraman and Oxford respectively. However, Griffiths and Sheen (1992) argues that the emb

The Develoment of the Horror Genre Essay -- essays research papers fc

The term Gothic is significant for the understanding of the origins and development of the horror genre. Both of these genres differ, whilst Gothic literature is the text that explores the frightening extremes in mankind, horror focuses more on the unknown. The Gothic horror genre has changed over time and retains importance because it is the antecedent of the horror genre. Factors such as the definition of the word Gothic, the archetypes of the genre, and its social and historical contexts, have altered considerably as time progressed. The value and popularity given to the gothic horror genre has also varied during the past few centuries. As a result, in order to understand the horror genre’s foundations, it is important to observe the Gothic novel’s modifications. Horror stories have existed for thousands of years, initially in the form of verbal communication. The themes of ruthless enemies and supernatural beings were common themes in myths in an attempt to set morals. However, at present, the true horror literature in its written form mostly aims to entertain. Its forerunner, the Gothic novel, rose in the eighteenth century and was extremely popular until the nineteenth century in England. The meaning of ‘gothic’ varies exceedingly. The word initially refers to German tribes that took part in overthrowing Rome. This word can be perceived as a synonymous for barbarous and dreadful. Similarly, the horror genre also has factors of monstrosity and dread. The â€Å"Gothic† style of architecture was famous in the middle ages and has been found on many cathedrals such as Notre Dame. Historians would describe this style as â€Å"gothic† to suggest their negative opinion of the architecture, that it was tasteless and dry. Instead of conforming to this perception, people were only led to believe the word to mean â€Å"dark and ominous†. Gothic architecture, with the foreboding atmosphere posed around it, correlates with the Gothic novel because it has been a prevalent backdrop to gothic novels in the 19th century, such as Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein. These Gothic horror stories were some of the first examples of the horror genre, and are therefore vital for the understanding this field. In its historical context, the gothic horror genre is believed to have emerged as a response to a time of rational thought, the Enlightenment or the Age of Reason. This intellectual movement a... ...tablished in the modern horror genre, thus it is practical to observe the archetypes of the Gothic novel as well. This allows the responders to grasp a better understanding of the origins of horror elements. It is therefore evident that the Gothic horror genre has evolved a great deal over the past two hundred years or so. The Gothic novel has affected the horror genre because of the intrigue created with the intense emotions and aspects of human nature. This as a result creates Gothic horror, similar to the horror genre but instead plays on the horrifying attributes of the radical human mind rather than the dread of the unknown and the irregular. In order to become more aware regarding the origins of the horror genre, it is important to understand the progress of the Gothic. It is notable to recognise the meaning of the term, its changing values, historical context and the varying archetypes of the Gothic novel in order to become acquainted with the horror genre’s development. Bibliography: http://academic.brooklyn.cuny.edu/english/melani/gothic/history.html http://www.wwnorton.com/nael/romantic/topic_2/welcome.htm http://cai.ucdavis.edu/waters-sites/gothicnovel/155breport.html

Draculas Love Story Essay -- Essays Papers

Dracula's Love Story Bram Stoker’s Dracula is the title of Francis Ford Coppola’s film adaptation of the classic novel Dracula. Coppola signified that the film would stay with the original plot and theme from the novel by putting the author’s name in the title of the film. However, even though he claims that his film is patterned after the novel, Coppola still could not help but put his own twist on the novel by sensualizing the story and adding a love story between Dracula and Mina. By adding a romantic subplot, Coppola makes the viewers feel sympathy for the evil Dracula when he is finally killed at the hand of his loved one. Also, the character of Mina turns from heroine in the novel to victim in the movie by having her fall in love with Dracula. Coppola changes the original story of Dracula in the film adaptation in many ways by the addition of a love story between Dracula and Mina. In the film adaptation of Dracula, the origins of the title character are explained to provide a motive for the love obsession between the title character and his lover. In the film, Dracula is said to be the notorious prince of Romania known as Vlad the Impaler. This idea stems from a theory that Bram Stoker actually patterned the character of Dracula after a real prince of Romania named Voivode. The movie shows that after a very bloody battle in 1463 against the Turks, Prince Vlad came back to his castle in Transylvania to find that his adored Elisabeta (played by Winona Ryder) had committed suicide. Dracula says, â€Å"I, Dracula, Voivode of Transylvania, will arise from my own death to avenge hers with all the powers of darkness!† He condemns God and makes a pact with the devil to become immortal by feeding on other ... ...f Dracula’s birth into the world of the undead lays the foundation for the love affair between Dracula and Mina. However, the love story changes the characters of Dracula and Mina drastically from the novel. In the film, Dracula is a character with whom the viewer sympathizes while in the novel he is feared. Mina’s character is strong willed in the novel while in the film she is weak and pathetic. Coppola’s adaptation destroys the characterization of the novel, taking away from Stoker’s image for the novel. The movie, instead of being titled Bram Stoker’s Dracula, should have been titled "Francis Ford Coppola’s Dracula". Works Cited Bram Stoker’s Dracula. Dir. Francis Ford Coppola. Perf. Gary Oldman, Winona Ryder, Keanu Reeves, and Sir Anthony Hopkins. Columbia TriStar Home Video, 1992. Stoker, Bram. Dracula. New York: Penguin Books, 1993.

A Game of Thrones Chapter Fifty-eight

Eddard The straw on the floor stank of urine. There was no window, no bed, not even a slop bucket. He remembered walls of pale red stone festooned with patches of nitre, a grey door of splintered wood, four inches thick and studded with iron. He had seen them, briefly, a quick glimpse as they shoved him inside. Once the door had slammed shut, he had seen no more. The dark was absolute. He had as well been blind. Or dead. Buried with his king. â€Å"Ah, Robert,† he murmured as his groping hand touched a cold stone wall, his leg throbbing with every motion. He remembered the jest the king had shared in the crypts of Winterfell, as the Kings of Winter looked on with cold stone eyes. The king eats, Robert had said, and the Hand takes the shit. How he had laughed. Yet he had gotten it wrong. The king dies, Ned Stark thought, and the Hand is buried. The dungeon was under the Red Keep, deeper than he dared imagine. He remembered the old stories about Maegor the Cruel, who murdered all the masons who labored on his castle, so they might never reveal its secrets. He damned them all: Littlefinger, Janos Slynt and his gold cloaks, the queen, the Kingslayer, Pycelle and Varys and Ser Barristan, even Lord Renly, Robert's own blood, who had run when he was needed most. Yet in the end he blamed himself. â€Å"Fool,† he cried to the darkness, â€Å"thrice-damned blind fool.† Cersei Lannister's face seemed to float before him in the darkness. Her hair was full of sunlight, but there was mockery in her smile. â€Å"When you play the game of thrones, you win or you die,† she whispered. Ned had played and lost, and his men had paid the price of his folly with their life's blood. When he thought of his daughters, he would have wept gladly, but the tears would not come. Even now, he was a Stark of Winterfell, and his grief and his rage froze hard inside him. When he kept very still, his leg did not hurt so much, so he did his best to lie unmoving. For how long he could not say. There was no sun and no moon. He could not see to mark the walls. Ned closed his eyes and opened them; it made no difference. He slept and woke and slept again. He did not know which was more painful, the waking or the sleeping. When he slept, he dreamed: dark disturbing dreams of blood and broken promises. When he woke, there was nothing to do but think, and his waking thoughts were worse than nightmares. The thought of Cat was as painful as a bed of nettles. He wondered where she was, what she was doing. He wondered whether he would ever see her again. Hours turned to days, or so it seemed. He could feel a dull ache in his shattered leg, an itch beneath the plaster. When he touched his thigh, the flesh was hot to his fingers. The only sound was his breathing. After a time, he began to talk aloud, just to hear a voice. He made plans to keep himself sane, built castles of hope in the dark. Robert's brothers were out in the world, raising armies at Dragonstone and Storm's End. Alyn and Harwin would return to King's Landing with the rest of his household guard once they had dealt with Ser Gregor. Catelyn would raise the north when the word reached her, and the lords of river and mountain and Vale would join her. He found himself thinking of Robert more and more. He saw the king as he had been in the flower of his youth, tall and handsome, his great antlered helm on his head, his warhammer in hand, sitting his horse like a horned god. He heard his laughter in the dark, saw his eyes, blue and clear as mountain lakes. â€Å"Look at us, Ned,† Robert said. â€Å"Gods, how did we come to this? You here, and me killed by a pig. We won a throne together . . . â€Å" I failed you, Robert, Ned thought. He could not say the words. I lied to you, hid the truth. I let them kill you. The king heard him. â€Å"You stiff-necked fool,† he muttered, â€Å"too proud to listen. Can you eat pride, Stark? Will honor shield your children?† Cracks ran down his face, fissures opening in the flesh, and he reached up and ripped the mask away. It was not Robert at all; it was Littlefinger, grinning, mocking him. When he opened his mouth to speak, his lies turned to pale grey moths and took wing. Ned was half-asleep when the footsteps came down the hall. At first he thought he dreamt them; it had been so long since he had heard anything but the sound of his own voice. Ned was feverish by then, his leg a dull agony, his lips parched and cracked. When the heavy wooden door creaked open, the sudden light was painful to his eyes. A gaoler thrust a jug at him. The clay was cool and beaded with moisture. Ned grasped it with both hands and gulped eagerly. Water ran from his mouth and dripped down through his beard. He drank until he thought he would be sick. â€Å"How long . . . ?† he asked weakly when he could drink no more. The gaoler was a scarecrow of a man with a rat's face and frayed beard, clad in a mail shirt and a leather half cape. â€Å"No talking,† he said as he wrenched the jug from Ned's hands. â€Å"Please,† Ned said, â€Å"my daughters . . . † The door crashed shut. He blinked as the light vanished, lowered his head to his chest, and curled up on the straw. It no longer stank of urine and shit. It no longer smelled at all. He could no longer tell the difference between waking and sleeping. The memory came creeping upon him in the darkness, as vivid as a dream. It was the year of false spring, and he was eighteen again, down from the Eyrie to the tourney at Harrenhal. He could see the deep green of the grass, and smell the pollen on the wind. Warm days and cool nights and the sweet taste of wine. He remembered Brandon's laughter, and Robert's berserk valor in the melee, the way he laughed as he unhorsed men left and right. He remembered Jaime Lannister, a golden youth in scaled white armor, kneeling on the grass in front of the king's pavilion and making his vows to protect and defend King Aerys. Afterward, Ser Oswell Whent helped Jaime to his feet, and the White Bull himself, Lord Commander Ser Gerold Hightower, fastened the snowy cloak of the Kingsguard about his shoulders. All six White Swords were there to welcome their newest brother. Yet when the jousting began, the day belonged to Rhaegar Targaryen. The crown prince wore the armor he would die in: gleaming black plate with the three-headed dragon of his House wrought in rubies on the breast. A plume of scarlet silk streamed behind him when he rode, and it seemed no lance could touch him. Brandon fell to him, and Bronze Yohn Royce, and even the splendid Ser Arthur Dayne, the Sword of the Morning. Robert had been jesting with Jon and old Lord Hunter as the prince circled the field after unhorsing Ser Barristan in the final tilt to claim the champion's crown. Ned remembered the moment when all the smiles died, when Prince Rhaegar Targaryen urged his horse past his own wife, the Dornish princess Elia Martell, to lay the queen of beauty's laurel in Lyanna's lap. He could see it still: a crown of winter roses, blue as frost. Ned Stark reached out his hand to grasp the flowery crown, but beneath the pale blue petals the thorns lay hidden. He felt them clawing at his skin, sharp and cruel, saw the slow trickle of blood run down his fingers, and woke, trembling, in the dark. Promise me, Ned, his sister had whispered from her bed of blood. She had loved the scent of winter roses. â€Å"Gods save me,† Ned wept. â€Å"I am going mad.† The gods did not deign to answer. Each time the turnkey brought him water, he told himself another day had passed. At first he would beg the man for some word of his daughters and the world beyond his cell. Grunts and kicks were his only replies. Later, when the stomach cramps began, he begged for food instead. It made no matter; he was not fed. Perhaps the Lannisters meant for him to starve to death. â€Å"No,† he told himself. If Cersei had wanted him dead, he would have been cut down in the throne room with his men. She wanted him alive. Weak, desperate, yet alive. Catelyn held her brother; she dare not kill him or the Imp's life would be forfeit as well. From outside his cell came the rattle of iron chains. As the door creaked open, Ned put a hand to the damp wall and pushed himself toward the light. The glare of a torch made him squint. â€Å"Food,† he croaked. â€Å"Wine,† a voice answered. It was not the rat-faced man; this gaoler was stouter, shorter, though he wore the same leather half cape and spiked steel cap. â€Å"Drink, Lord Eddard.† He thrust a wineskin into Ned's hands. The voice was strangely familiar, yet it took Ned Stark a moment to place it. â€Å"Varys?† he said groggily when it came. He touched the man's face. â€Å"I'm not . . . not dreaming this. You're here.† The eunuch's plump cheeks were covered with a dark stubble of beard. Ned felt the coarse hair with his fingers. Varys had transformed himself into a grizzled turnkey, reeking of sweat and sour wine. â€Å"How did you . . . what sort of magician are you?† â€Å"A thirsty one,† Varys said. â€Å"Drink, my lord.† Ned's hands fumbled at the skin. â€Å"Is this the same poison they gave Robert?† â€Å"You wrong me,† Varys said sadly. â€Å"Truly, no one loves a eunuch. Give me the skin.† He drank, a trickle of red leaking from the corner of his plump mouth. â€Å"Not the equal of the vintage you offered me the night of the tourney, but no more poisonous than most,† he concluded, wiping his lips. â€Å"Here.† Ned tried a swallow. â€Å"Dregs.† He felt as though he were about to bring the wine back up. â€Å"All men must swallow the sour with the sweet. High lords and eunuchs alike. Your hour has come, my lord.† â€Å"My daughters . . . â€Å" â€Å"The younger girl escaped Ser Meryn and fled,† Varys told him. â€Å"I have not been able to find her. Nor have the Lannisters. A kindness, there. Our new king loves her not. Your older girl is still betrothed to Joffrey. Cersei keeps her close. She came to court a few days ago to plead that you be spared. A pity you couldn't have been there, you would have been touched.† He leaned forward intently. â€Å"I trust you realize that you are a dead man, Lord Eddard?† â€Å"The queen will not kill me,† Ned said. His head swam; the wine was strong, and it had been too long since he'd eaten. â€Å"Cat . . . Cat holds her brother . . . â€Å" â€Å"The wrong brother,† Varys sighed. â€Å"And lost to her, in any case. She let the Imp slip through her fingers. I expect he is dead by now, somewhere in the Mountains of the Moon.† â€Å"If that is true, slit my throat and have done with it.† He was dizzy from the wine, tired and heartsick. â€Å"Your blood is the last thing I desire.† Ned frowned. â€Å"When they slaughtered my guard, you stood beside the queen and watched, and said not a word.† â€Å"And would again. I seem to recall that I was unarmed, unarmored, and surrounded by Lannister swords.† The eunuch looked at him curiously, tilting his head. â€Å"When I was a young boy, before I was cut, I traveled with a troupe of mummers through the Free Cities. They taught me that each man has a role to play, in life as well as mummery. So it is at court. The King's Justice must be fearsome, the master of coin must be frugal, the Lord Commander of the Kingsguard must be valiant . . . and the master of whisperers must be sly and obsequious and without scruple. A courageous informer would be as useless as a cowardly knight.† He took the wineskin back and drank. Ned studied the eunuch's face, searching for truth beneath the mummer's scars and false stubble. He tried some more wine. This time it went down easier. â€Å"Can you free me from this pit?† â€Å"I could . . . but will I? No. Questions would be asked, and the answers would lead back to me.† Ned had expected no more. â€Å"You are blunt.† â€Å"A eunuch has no honor, and a spider does not enjoy the luxury of scruples, my lord.† â€Å"Would you at least consent to carry a message out for me?† â€Å"That would depend on the message. I will gladly provide you with paper and ink, if you like. And when you have written what you will, I will take the letter and read it, and deliver it or not, as best serves my own ends.† â€Å"Your own ends. What ends are those, Lord Varys?† â€Å"Peace,† Varys replied without hesitation. â€Å"If there was one soul in King's Landing who was truly desperate to keep Robert Baratheon alive, it was me.† He sighed. â€Å"For fifteen years I protected him from his enemies, but I could not protect him from his friends. What strange fit of madness led you to tell the queen that you had learned the truth of Joffrey's birth?† â€Å"The madness of mercy,† Ned admitted. â€Å"Ah,† said Varys. â€Å"To be sure. You are an honest and honorable man, Lord Eddard. Ofttimes I forget that. I have met so few of them in my life.† He glanced around the cell. â€Å"When I see what honesty and honor have won you, I understand why.† Ned Stark laid his head back against the damp stone wall and closed his eyes. His leg was throbbing. â€Å"The king's wine . . . did you question Lancel?† â€Å"Oh, indeed. Cersei gave him the wineskins, and told him it was Robert's favorite vintage.† The eunuch shrugged. â€Å"A hunter lives a perilous life. If the boar had not done for Robert, it would have been a fall from a horse, the bite of a wood adder, an arrow gone astray . . . the forest is the abbatoir of the gods. It was not wine that killed the king. It was your mercy.† Ned had feared as much. â€Å"Gods forgive me.† â€Å"If there are gods,† Varys said, â€Å"I expect they will. The queen would not have waited long in any case. Robert was becoming unruly, and she needed to be rid of him to free her hands to deal with his brothers. They are quite a pair, Stannis and Renly. The iron gauntlet and the silk glove.† He wiped his mouth with the back of his hand. â€Å"You have been foolish, my lord. You ought to have heeded Littlefinger when he urged you to support Joffrey's succession.† â€Å"How . . . how could you know of that?† Varys smiled. â€Å"I know, that's all that need concern you. I also know that on the morrow the queen will pay you a visit.† Slowly Ned raised his eyes. â€Å"Why?† â€Å"Cersei is frightened of you, my lord . . . but she has other enemies she fears even more. Her beloved Jaime is fighting the river lords even now. Lysa Arryn sits in the Eyrie, ringed in stone and steel, and there is no love lost between her and the queen. In Dorne, the Martells still brood on the murder of Princess Elia and her babes. And now your son marches down the Neck with a northern host at his back.† â€Å"Robb is only a boy,† Ned said, aghast. â€Å"A boy with an army,† Varys said. â€Å"Yet only a boy, as you say. The king's brothers are the ones giving Cersei sleepless nights . . . Lord Stannis in particular. His claim is the true one, he is known for his prowess as a battle commander, and he is utterly without mercy. There is no creature on earth half so terrifying as a truly just man. No one knows what Stannis has been doing on Dragonstone, but I will wager you that he's gathered more swords than seashells. So here is Cersei's nightmare: while her father and brother spend their power battling Starks and Tullys, Lord Stannis will land, proclaim himself king, and lop off her son's curly blond head . . . and her own in the bargain, though I truly believe she cares more about the boy.† â€Å"Stannis Baratheon is Robert's true heir,† Ned said. â€Å"The throne is his by rights. I would welcome his ascent.† Varys tsked. â€Å"Cersei will not want to hear that, I promise you. Stannis may win the throne, but only your rotting head will remain to cheer unless you guard that tongue of yours. Sansa begged so sweetly, it would be a shame if you threw it all away. You are being given your life back, if you'll take it. Cersei is no fool. She knows a tame wolf is of more use than a dead one.† â€Å"You want me to serve the woman who murdered my king, butchered my men, and crippled my son?† Ned's voice was thick with disbelief. â€Å"I want you to serve the realm,† Varys said. â€Å"Tell the queen that you will confess your vile treason, command your son to lay down his sword, and proclaim Joffrey as the true heir. Offer to denounce Stannis and Renly as faithless usurpers. Our green-eyed lioness knows you are a man of honor. If you will give her the peace she needs and the time to deal with Stannis, and pledge to carry her secret to your grave, I believe she will allow you to take the black and live out the rest of your days on the Wall, with your brother and that baseborn son of yours.† The thought of Jon filled Ned with a sense of shame, and a sorrow too deep for words. If only he could see the boy again, sit and talk with him . . . pain shot through his broken leg, beneath the filthy grey plaster of his cast. He winced, his fingers opening and closing helplessly. â€Å"Is this your own scheme,† he gasped out at Varys, â€Å"or are you in league with Littlefinger?† That seemed to amuse the eunuch. â€Å"I would sooner wed the Black Goat of Qohor. Littlefinger is the second most devious man in the Seven Kingdoms. Oh, I feed him choice whispers, sufficient so that he thinks I am his . . . just as I allow Cersei to believe I am hers.† â€Å"And just as you let me believe that you were mine. Tell me, Lord Varys, who do you truly serve?† Varys smiled thinly. â€Å"Why, the realm, my good lord, how ever could you doubt that? I swear it by my lost manhood. I serve the realm, and the realm needs peace.† He finished the last swallow of wine, and tossed the empty skin aside. â€Å"So what is your answer, Lord Eddard? Give me your word that you'll tell the queen what she wants to hear when she comes calling.† â€Å"If I did, my word would be as hollow as an empty suit of armor. My life is not so precious to me as that.† â€Å"Pity.† The eunuch stood. â€Å"And your daughter's life, my lord? How precious is that?† A chill pierced Ned's heart. â€Å"My daughter . . . â€Å" â€Å"Surely you did not think I'd forgotten about your sweet innocent, my lord? The queen most certainly has not.† â€Å"No,† Ned pleaded, his voice cracking. â€Å"Varys, gods have mercy, do as you like with me, but leave my daughter out of your schemes. Sansa's no more than a child.† â€Å"Rhaenys was a child too. Prince Rhaegar's daughter. A precious little thing, younger than your girls. She had a small black kitten she called Balerion, did you know? I always wondered what happened to him. Rhaenys liked to pretend he was the true Balerion, the Black Dread of old, but I imagine the Lannisters taught her the difference between a kitten and a dragon quick enough, the day they broke down her door.† Varys gave a long weary sigh, the sigh of a man who carried all the sadness of the world in a sack upon his shoulders. â€Å"The High Septon once told me that as we sin, so do we suffer. If that's true, Lord Eddard, tell me . . . why is it always the innocents who suffer most, when you high lords play your game of thrones? Ponder it, if you would, while you wait upon the queen. And spare a thought for this as well: The next visitor who calls on you could bring you bread and cheese and the milk of the poppy for your pain . . . or he could bring you Sansa's head. â€Å"The choice, my dear lord Hand, is entirely yours.†